The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (750-900 CE): Epic History and Impact

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty governed regions of South India from the eighth to the tenth centuries CE. At its height, their realm covered present-day Karnataka entirely, along with portions of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. Rashtrakuta dynasty capital Malkhed was situated near Sholapur. Due to their strategic position, the Rashtrakutas engaged in alliances and conflicts with neighbouring kingdoms to the north and south. Initially Hindu, the dynasty’s later rulers adhered to Jainism as documented in historical accounts.

Origin of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• The Rashtrakuta Empire dominated the Deccan for almost 200 years till the end of 10^th century and also controlled territories in north and south India at various points of time.
• After Harshavardhana’s death, North India faced a central power vacuum.
• By the mid-eighth century, the Pala dynasty emerged in the East, while the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty rose in the West to fill the void.
• Concurrently, the Rashtrakuta dynasty seized control of the Deccan region after the decline of the Badami branch of the Chalukya dynasty.
• The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty is subject to various theories:
  • Some sources suggest descent from the Yadava family, supported by inscriptions linking them to the Yadavas.
  • A copper grant of the Rashtrakutas claims their founder, Dandidurga, belonged to the Yadava Satyaki lineage.
  • Alternatively, historians propose that officials of the Chalukya empire, titled Rashtrakuta, later established the independent Rashtrakuta dynasty.

Rulers of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty: Founders and its descendants

Dantidurga founded the Rashtrakuta Dynasty, known for establishing its early prominence in the Deccan region of India around the middle of the 8th century. He ascended to power after the decline of the Badami Chalukyas and played a pivotal role in consolidating Rashtrakuta’s authority.

Dantidurga is particularly noted for his military exploits, which helped expand the boundaries of the Rashtrakuta kingdom. According to inscriptions and historical records, he traced his lineage to the Yadava clan of rulers. His reign marked the beginning of a significant era in South Indian history, setting the stage for the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s enduring influence and cultural achievements in the centuries to come.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty Rulers

Ruler	Reign Period
Dantidurga	735 – 756 CE
Krishna I	756 – 774 CE
Govinda II	774 – 780 CE
Dhruva Dharavarsha	780 – 793 CE
Govinda III	793 – 814 CE
Amoghavarsha I	814 – 878 CE
Krishna II	878 – 914 CE
Indra III	914 – 929 CE
Amoghavarsha II	929 – 930 CE
Govinda IV	930 – 936 CE
Amoghavarsha III	936 – 939 CE
Krishna III	939 – 967 CE
Khottiga	967 – 972 CE
Karka II	972 – 973 CE
Indra IV	973 – 982 CE

Important Rulers of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Dantidurga (735 – 756 CE)

• Founded the Rashtrakuta dynasty and became its first ruler.
• Established Manyakhet (Malkhed) as the capital.
• Defeated the Gurjaras to capture Malwa and the Chalukyas under Kirtivarman II.
• Performed the Hiranya Garbha ritual, believed to grant Kshatriya (warrior) status.
• Dantidurga attacked Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.
• He occupied all territories between the Godavari and Vima.

Krishna I (756-774 CE)

• Succeeded his uncle Dantidurga after his death without a male heir.
• Ended the Badami Chalukya dynasty by defeating them in 757 CE.
• Expanded the kingdom through conquests:
  • Gangas
  • Konkan regions
  • Eastern Chalukya kingdom of Vengi (without conflict)
• Credited with building the magnificent Kailasa Temple of Ellora (UNESCO World Heritage Site).

Govinda II (774-780 CE)

• The eldest son of Krishna I, ascended the throne after his father’s death.
• Conquered Vengi as a prince and annexed it to the Rashtrakuta kingdom.
• Deposed by his younger brother Dhruvaraja due to his fondness for leisure and delegating governance.

Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE)

• The younger brother of Govinda II, who overthrew him.
• Successfully campaigned in North India but didn’t acquire much territory.

Govinda III (793-814 CE)

• Son of Dhruva Dharavarsha.
• Considered the most powerful Rashtrakuta emperor militarily.
• Achieved imperial supremacy in the north through victories against:
  • Pratihara king Nagabhatta II
  • Pala king Dharmapala
  • Numerous other North Indian kings (made them vassals)
• Established himself as the suzerain of North India by marching to the Himalayas.
• Conquered Malwa.
• Most significant conquest: Lata (central and southern Gujarat).

Amoghavarsha I (814-878 CE)

• Son of Govinda III ascended the throne as a minor.
• Faced rebellions from feudal chiefs during his minority.
• Deposed by the Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya II of Vengi.
• Regained his throne with the help of his cousin Karkaraja (regent).
• Ruled for 64 years, facing constant rebellions and attacks from neighbors.
• Notable victories:
  • Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (led by Gunaga Vijayaditya) in the Battle of Vingavalli.
• Shifted the Deccan Rashtrakutas’ capital from Nasik to Manykheta (Mankir).
• Frequent conflicts with the Western Chalukyas for control of land.
• Strengthened the dynasty through a strategic marriage alliance with the Ganga dynasty.
• A devout follower of Jainism (possibly the Digambara sect).

Krishna II (878-914 CE)

• Son of Amoghavarsha I, ascended the throne around 875 CE (while his father was still alive).
• Ruled during a period of ongoing conflict with the Western Chalukyas.
• Deposed the Rashtrakuta king of the offshoot dynasty in Lata and annexed the region.
• Expanded the kingdom’s reach from the Ganges in the north to Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south.

Indra III (914-929 CE)

• Son of Jagattunga and a Kalachuri princess. Crowned in Kurundaka instead of the capital (reason unknown).
• Claimed descent from Satyaki Yadava in a copper plate inscription (unverified).
• Destroyed Meru (possibly Mahodaya/Kanauj) ruled by Pratihara Mahipala.
• Patron of the author Trivikrama Bhatta, who wrote Damayanti Katha and Madalasa Champu.
• Ruled for only about six years and was succeeded by his elder son Amoghavarsha II (who died within a year).

Krishna III (939-967 CE)

• The eldest son of Baddiga became king around 939 CE.
• Wielded significant power even as Crown Prince.
• A successful military leader with victories in all directions:
  • Defeated the Gurjara king.
  • Conquered and destroyed the Kanchi kingdom (led by Dantiga).
  • Subjugated the Pandya territory and the king of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
  • Defeated the Chola king Parantaka I (949 CE).

Administration of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Monarchical Structure and Succession

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty operated under a hereditary monarchy. The king wielded ultimate authority, functioning as both the supreme administrator and military leader (Commander-in-Chief).
• Succession followed the principle of primogeniture, with the eldest son designated as the Yuvaraja (heir apparent). The Yuvaraja received training in governance by assisting with administration within the capital city.
• Younger sons were frequently appointed as provincial governors, granting them experience and bolstering their status.
• To advise the king, a council of ministers was established. These ministers were hand-picked by the king himself and typically hailed from prominent families.

Central Administration

• The Rashtrakuta empire encompassed both directly controlled territories and regions governed by vassal chiefs.
• The core empire was meticulously divided into provinces known as Rashtras. Each Rashtra was overseen by a Rashtrapati, who held responsibility for both civil and military affairs within their province.
• Further subdivision within the Rashtras occurred, creating Visayas (districts) headed by Vishayapatis.
• Visayas comprised Bhuktis, which were groups of villages typically ranging from 50 to 60 in number. Bhuktis were administered by Bhogapatis.
• The village, representing the most fundamental unit of administration, was governed by a headman. This headman received assistance from the grama-mahajana (village elder).
• These officials were compensated for their service through grants of rent-free land. In some instances, Rashtrapatis attained a near-regal status.

Provincial Governance

• Village committees, working in close collaboration with the village headman, managed local institutions such as schools, temples, and infrastructure projects (roads, water tanks) to ensure the well-being of the populace.
• Vassal chiefs enjoyed a degree of autonomy within their own territories. However, they were obligated to pay fixed tributes and contribute military support to the Rashtrakuta emperor. Notably, the vassal chiefs of Vengi and Karnataka occasionally challenged the central authority of the Rashtrakutas.
• Law and order within towns and their surrounding areas were maintained by designated officials known as Koshtapala (Kotwal).
• Nad-gavundas or Desa-gramakutas served as revenue officers, responsible for collecting taxes and managing financial affairs.

Military Strength

• The Rashtrakutas maintained a formidable army, renowned for incorporating imported horses from West Asia and Arabia. This emphasis on cavalry suggests a well-equipped and mobile military force.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty Society

• Al-Biruni, a renowned 10th-century scholar, documented the presence of sixteen castes in Rashtrakuta society. These included the four well-known varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras) with further subdivisions.
• The Antyajas, considered the lowest caste, provided essential manual labor for the wealthy.
• Brahmins held the highest social status, followed by Kshatriyas of the Sat-Kshatriya (noble) sub-caste.
• Brahmins traditionally pursued professions like education, law, astrology, mathematics, poetry, and philosophy. However, they also increasingly ventured into non-traditional fields such as agriculture, betel nut trade, and even military roles.
• Specific professions like sailing, hunting, weaving, cobbling, basket making, and fishing were associated with particular castes or subcastes.
• Joint families were the norm, although inscriptions reveal instances of legal separation between brothers and even fathers and sons.
• Women and daughters possessed property and land rights, as evidenced by inscriptions recording land sales by women.
• Dancing was a popular form of entertainment. Inscriptions suggest that royal women enjoyed performances by both male and female dancers in the palace.
• Attending animal fights, involving both same-species and inter-species battles, was another recreational activity.
• Astronomy and astrology were well-developed fields of study.
• Superstitious beliefs were prevalent, with customs like catching a snake alive being considered a test of a woman’s chastity.

Role of Religion in Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• The Rashtrakutas played a pivotal role in elevating Kannada, a language with an existing presence, to a prominent position. It became a vital tool for everyday communication during their reign.
• While promoting Kannada, the Rashtrakutas also patronized Sanskrit, the language of the elite. Notably, Amoghavarsha I, a prominent ruler, actively supported the creation of significant works in both languages.
• His literary contribution in Kannada, particularly the Kavirajamarga, is considered a landmark achievement in Kannada poetry. His Sanskrit works garnered widespread acclaim and were read across other Asian countries.
• Amoghavarsha I’s association with Jainism (according to legends) fostered a flourishing Jain literary scene within his court. This included renowned figures like Mahaviracharya, a Jain mathematician.
• Kannada literature flourished under the Rashtrakutas, with iconic figures like Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna emerging and making lasting contributions to the language.

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Literature under the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty, ruling from the 6th to 10th centuries, was a golden era for literature, particularly Sanskrit and Kannada. Here are some key literary contributions from this period:

Sanskrit Literature

• Trivikrama Bhatta penned the work ‘Nalachampu’.
• Halayudha composed ‘Kavirahasya’ during the reign of Krishna III.
• Jinasena authored ‘Parsvabhudaya’, a biography of Parsva in verses, and ‘Adipurana’, detailing the life stories of various Jain saints.
• Sakatayana wrote ‘Amogavritti’, a significant grammar work.
• Viracharya, a renowned mathematician of this period, wrote ‘Ganitasaram’.

Kannada Literature

The Rashtrakuta period also marked the beginning of Kannada literature:

• Amogavarsha composed ‘Kavirajamarga’, the first poetic work in the Kannada language.
• Pampa considered the greatest of the Kannada poets, is known for his famous work ‘Vikramasenavijaya’.
• Ponna, another renowned Kannada poet, wrote the great work ‘Santipurana’.

Art and Architecture of the Rashtrakutas

• The rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, located in present-day Maharashtra, showcase the Rashtrakuta Dynasty’s significant contributions to art and architecture.
• These temples were not only newly constructed but also involved the re-dedication of existing rock-cut shrines and the renovation of Buddhist caves.
• At Ellora, King Amoghavarsha I sponsored the creation of five Jain cave temples.
• The most remarkable work at Ellora is the monolithic Kailashnath Temple, showcasing the Rashtrakutas’ architectural prowess.
• As Rashtrakuta rule extended to the Deccan region, King Krishna I supported architectural projects.
• The Dravidian architectural style was prominent in these constructions.
• Notable sculptures at Elephanta include Ardhanaarishwar and Maheshamurti.
• In addition to Ellora, the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples are well-known rock-cut structures in Maharashtra.
• The Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai also falls into this category.
• The Rashtrakutas also built the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka

Ellora Caves:

• The Ellora Caves, located in present-day Maharashtra, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a testament to Rashtrakuta architectural prowess.
• Originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves, the Rashtrakutas rededicated and renovated these rock-cut shrines.
• Kailasanatha Temple: The crowning jewel at Ellora is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple. Carved out of a single rock, it stands as a magnificent achievement. Its intricate carvings, intricate pillars, and grand scale confirm the Rashtrakutas’ status as “one of the four principal Kings of the world” according to an Arabic text1.
• Jain Influence: During the reign of Amoghavarsha I, a peace-loving ruler who practiced Jainism, five Jain cave temples were also created at Ellora.

Elephanta Caves:

• The Elephanta Caves, situated on Elephanta Island near Mumbai, showcase Rashtrakuta’s contributions to art.
• These rock-cut caves house impressive sculptures, including the famous Shiva temple.
• Krishna I, another notable Rashtrakuta ruler, was responsible for the construction of the 9th-century rock-cut temple of Shiva at Elephanta.

Decline of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty

• During Khottiga Amoghavarsha’s reign, the Paramara king Siyaka Harsha launched a devastating attack. The plundering of the Rashtrakuta capital, Manyakheta, significantly damaged the empire’s prestige and stability, paving the way for its downfall.
• The final decline unfolded swiftly. Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory from the Tardavadi province (present-day Bijapur district), seized the opportunity to declare independence, further fracturing the weakening empire.
• With the Rashtrakutas faltering, their network of feudatories and allied clans across the Deccan and northern India saw an opportunity. They asserted their independence, further eroding the empire’s once-unified domain.
• The Western Chalukyas capitalized on the power vacuum. They annexed Manyakheta, establishing it as their capital until 1015. This marked the rise of a new power in the region, built upon the heartland of the fallen Rashtrakutas.
• The “tripartite struggle” was the conflict between the Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas, and Palas in medieval India (8th-10th centuries), each vying for dominance over different regions, shaping the political and cultural landscape of the time.

Relevance of Rashtrakuta Dynasty in UPSC

The Rashtrakuta dynasty (735-997 CE) is a prominent chapter included in the UPSC syllabus for a reason. Understanding their reign offers valuable insights into the political, cultural, and architectural landscape of medieval India. Here’s why studying the Rashtrakutas is crucial for UPSC aspirants:

UPSC Exam Relevance:

• GS Paper I (History): The Rashtrakutas fall under the broad theme of “The Salient Aspects of Indian History and Culture.” Understanding their rise, administration, and achievements is essential for answering questions related to the medieval period.
  
• GS Paper II (Governance): The administrative structure and military strategies employed by the Rashtrakutas can be used to analyze their governance practices and compare them with those of other dynasties.
  
• GS Paper IV (Ethics, Integrity, and Aptitudes): The Rashtrakuta dynasty’s role in promoting art, literature, and religious tolerance can be studied within the context of ethical leadership and its impact on society.
  

How to Approach the Rashtrakutas for UPSC:

• Refer to standard NCERT textbooks and reference materials recommended by the UPSC.
• Focus on understanding the key rulers, their achievements, administrative policies, and cultural contributions.
• Practice answering UPSC-style questions related to the Rashtrakutas to improve your analytical and writing skills.

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Conclusion

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty served as a historical link between the past and modern-day India. Their architectural brilliance, cultural patronage, and strategic leadership continue to connect the past to modern civilization. The craftsmanship of their rock-cut temples, the diversity of their religious patronage, and their influence on regional politics are still felt in modern-day India. Discovering our Rashtrakuta ancestors helps us to dig into the origins of Indian culture. It helps recognize the persistent influences that continue to create present artistic, cultural, and political landscapes.

Also Read:-

Pallava Dynasty: Political Background, Territory, and Rulers

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Mughal Dynasty: An Overview

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