The Chola Dynasty: Rulers, Administrations, Decline

The Chola Dynasty was one of the longest-lasting kingdoms, beginning in the 3rd century BCE and lasting until the 13th century. A new society emerged during this time, and art flourished like never before. Temples and writings from this era depict a happy time in history. Its longevity and stability have made the Chola Dynasty renowned.

It built numerous temples and supported art and culture, resulting in the construction of many beautiful temples.

Origins of the Cholas

• The Chola dynasty reigned over South India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE, making it one of the longest-lasting dynasties in the region.
• The dynasty’s origins are wrapped in legend and mythology, necessitating historians to reconstruct its rise to power using literary and archaeological sources.
• According to legend, the Cholas claimed descent from Surya, the Sun God.
• Historical records from the 3rd century BCE, such as those by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, recognize the Cholas as a prominent kingdom in South India.
• Vijayalaya Chola, ruling from Thanjavur in the 9th century CE, strengthened Chola authority by defeating the Pallavas, who had been dominant in South India for ages.
• The peak of Chola power occurred under Rajaraja Chola (985-1014 CE), who expanded the Chola empire significantly, asserting dominance in South India.
• Rajaraja Chola’s son, Rajendra Chola I, continued his father’s expansionist policies, annexing territories including Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and parts of Southeast Asia.

Chola Dynasty: Founder

The Chola Dynasty began in the 3rd century BCE with Vijayalaya Chola. In the ninth century AD, Vijayalaya Chola established the imperial Chola dynasty. He was an Indian feudatory of the Pallava dynasty who first held power over a modest area in what is now Tamil Nadu. Vijayalaya Chola progressively grew his empire by capturing neighboring nations.

Aditya I, the son of Vijayalaya Chola, succeeded him as the ruler of the Chola state, which he further extended and strengthened. Historians regard the reign of the Chola dynasty as a golden period in the history of Tamil Nadu.

Chola Dynasty Rulers

After Vijayalaya Chola’s rule, Aditya I and his son took over the Chola Empire. The period was notably recognized as the Chola Middle Ages, marked by the Cholas’ era of power and growth. Some of the rulers in charge are:

Rulers	Ruling Periods
Vijayalaya Chola	848-871
Aditya I	871-907
Parantaka Chola I	907-950
Gandaraditya	950-957
Arinjaya Chola	956-957
Sundara Chola	957-970
Uttama Chola	970-985
Rajaraja Chola I	985-1014
Rajendra Chola I	1012-1044
Rajadhiraja Chola	1018-1054
Rajendra Chola II	1051-1063
Virarajendra Chola	1063-1070
Athirajendra Chola	1067-1070

Important Chola Dynasty Rulers

Karikala Chola

• The most notable early Chola ruler was Karikala Chola. He is credited with establishing the town of Puhar near the mouth of the Cauvery River and building an embankment alongside it.
• Additionally, he has shown a strong interest in expanding irrigation infrastructure and in land reclamation.
• Although Chola rulers date back to the Mauryan era, nothing is known about their post-Sangam history or their relationship to the Cholas of the early medieval era.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

• The Chola empire peaked during the reign of Arumolivarman, who took the title Rajaraja I upon ascending to the throne.
• Rajaraja I was Parantaka II’s son who built a strong empire and gave it a first-rate administrative structure.
• His Tanjore inscriptions detail his military conquests as well as the territories he conquered and incorporated into his dominion.
• Rajaraja annihilated the Chera navy in Trivandrum and launched an attack on Quilon. The Pandyan monarch was then taken prisoner after he had taken Madurai.
• Additionally, he attacked Sri Lanka and conquered the northern region for his dominion. His aim to dominate commerce with the nations of Southeast Asia was one of the factors driving these actions.
• India’s commerce hubs with Southeast Asian nations were the Coromandel Coast and Malabar.
• The invasion of the Maldives was one of his naval victories. Rajaraja conquered Vengi and captured the Ganga kingdom in Karnataka’s northwest.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

• Rajendra Chola (1012–1044) ruled over an area that included the eastern archipelago and the Malay Peninsula.
• This particular king’s conquests imply that he was successful in conquering the entire region, from Andhra to Orissa, as well as portions of Madhya Pradesh and Bengal, earning him the moniker Gangaikondan, or “conqueror of the river Ganga.”
• Rajendra had been named heir apparent during his father’s lifetime and had considerable experience in administration and warfare prior to his accession to the throne.
• He totally overran the Pandya and Chera nations and incorporated them into his empire, continuing Rajaraja’s annexationist agenda.

Kulathunga Chola 1

• The Cholas’ many accomplishments were made possible by recent advances in agriculture. Although agriculture had been developed earlier in other regions of Tamil Nadu, this land wasn’t made available for extensive farming until the fifth or sixth century.
• In the Malay Peninsula’s Srivijayan province of Kedah, he established Chola dominance.
• Kulottunga carried out a significant land survey during his rule, which served as the foundation for taxes.
• Kulatunga passed away at the age of 97 about 1122 CE, however this date is under question.
• As a result, he ranks among the rulers who lived the longest in the Middle Ages.

Rajendra III

• In Rajaraja III’s reign, the Hoysalas joined forces with the Cholas to overthrow the Kadava ruler Kopperunjinga and the Pandyas and conquer the Tamil nation.
• Rajendra Chola III, who followed Rajaraja III, was a far superior king who made audacious decisions to restore the fortunes of the Cholas.
• His epigraphs, some of which have been discovered as far away as Cuddappah, attest to his successful travels towards the north.
• Additionally, he vanquished two Pandya princes, including Maravarman Sundara Pandya II, and momentarily forced the Pandyas to bow to Chola rule.

Chola Dynasty Time Period: (300 BCE – 13th Century CE)

The Chola Dynasty reigned supreme in South India for over a millennium, leaving an indelible mark on the region’s history. Here’s a breakdown of their remarkable journey:

Rise to Power:

• Early Cholas (3rd century BCE – 9th century CE): While the dynasty’s origins trace back to 300 BCE, King Vijayalaya Chola (9th century CE) is credited with laying the foundation for the Chola empire. He secured key victories and established Thanjavur as the capital.

Imperial Grandeur (9th – 13th century CE):

• Golden Age under Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 CE): This emperor ushered in a glorious era. He expanded the Chola territory significantly and commissioned architectural marvels like the Brihadeeswara Temple (a UNESCO World Heritage Site).
• Rajendra Chola I (1014-1044 CE): Rajaraja Chola’s son, Rajendra Chola I, further extended the empire’s reach, stretching its influence into Southeast Asia.

Decline and Legacy:

• Later Cholas (13th century CE): The dynasty gradually weakened in the 13th century due to invasions from the Pandyas and Chalukyas. Despite this, the Cholas left behind a rich legacy:
  • Thriving Arts and Literature: They actively promoted artistic expression, literature, and temple construction.
  • Architectural Marvels: Chola architecture is celebrated for its unique features, often incorporating water tanks.

Cholas in the Sangam Literature

The Chola kings mentioned in Sangam literature span the period from 200 BCE to 300 CE. While the literature does not provide a chronological sequence of rulers, several notable Chola kings stand out:

Karikala Chola:

Karikala Chola, regarded as the greatest among the Early Cholas, ruled over southern India and is renowned for constructing flood banks along the river Kaveri. The name ‘Karikalan’ is interpreted by some Tamil scholars to mean ‘the slayer of elephants’. Legend has it that Karikala’s father, Ilamcetcenni, a courageous king of Uraiyur (modern-day Tiruchirappalli), married Princess Velir, who gave birth to Karikala. After Ilamcetcenni’s untimely death, Karikala was denied his rightful throne due to political turmoil and was exiled. Later, Chola ministers dispatched an elephant to find him, discovering him hiding in Karuvur (modern-day Karur, Tamil Nadu). Political adversaries imprisoned the prince and set fire to the jail. Despite escaping the flames and defeating his enemies with the aid of his uncle Irum-pitar-thalaiyan, the prince suffered burns to his leg, earning him the moniker Karikala. He engaged in numerous battles against Tamil kings, establishing dominance over the Pandyas and Cheras.

Nalankilli and Nedunkilli:

According to Sangam literature, Nalankilli and Nedunkilli were rival Tamil kings from the Chola dynasty. Poet Kovur Kilar vividly depicted their conflict in two poems. Nalankilli besieged Nedunkilli with soldiers, forcing the latter to seek refuge in a fort at Avur. Nalankilli challenged Nedunkilli to come out and face him like a man. Another poem by the poet urges both kings to cease their war, emphasizing that regardless of the outcome, the loser would remain a Chola.

Kocengannan:

Kocengannan, another Chola king mentioned in Sangam literature, is celebrated in the poem “Kalavali” by Poygayar. This poem narrates the battle between Kocengannan and Chera King Kanaikkal Irumporai. Kocengannan emerged victorious, capturing Kanaikkal. Impressed by the loyalty and poetic tribute of Poygayar, a friend of the Chera king, Kocengannan released Kanaikkal. Along the banks of the River Kaveri, Kocengannan constructed numerous temples dedicated to Lord Shiva, demonstrating his devotion and influence.

Cholan Dynasty: Capital

The Chola Dynasty, a dominant force in South India for over a millennium (300 BCE – 13th Century CE), wasn’t confined to a single capital city. Their power base shifted and evolved over time, reflecting their expanding influence and strategic considerations. Let’s embark on a journey through the fascinating history of the Chola Dynasty’s capitals.

Early Cholas: Establishing a Foundation (Up to 9th Century CE)

While details about the very early Cholas remain unclear, historical evidence suggests:

• Uraiyur (Present-day Trichy): Some scholars believe Uraiyur, an ancient city located in present-day Tamil Nadu, might have served as a capital during the pre-classical era. However, concrete evidence to solidify this claim is limited.

Imperial Cholas: Thanjavur – The Jewel in the Crown (9th – 13th Century CE)

• Thanjavur (Tanjore): This city, situated in the fertile Cauvery delta region, emerged as the undisputed capital during the Chola empire’s golden age (9th – 13th century CE). Vijayalaya Chola, considered the founder of the historical Chola empire, captured Thanjavur in the 9th century CE and established it as the administrative center. The city flourished under Chola rule, witnessing the construction of magnificent temples like the Brihadeeswara Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Strategic Significance of Thanjavur:

Several factors contributed to Thanjavur’s importance as the Chola capital:

• Central Location: Situated in the heart of Tamil Nadu, Thanjavur provided easy access to different parts of the empire, facilitating control and communication.
• Fertile Land: The Cauvery delta region surrounding Thanjavur was rich in agricultural resources, contributing significantly to the Chola economy.
• Cultural Hub: Thanjavur became a center of art, literature, and temple architecture, reflecting the cultural flourishing during the Chola era.

Beyond Thanjavur: Temporary Capitals and Shifting Power

The Cholas also established temporary capitals in strategic locations during military campaigns or to assert control over newly conquered territories. Some examples include:

• Gangaikonda Cholapuram: Built by Rajendra Chola I to commemorate his victories in North India, this city briefly served as a capital in the 11th century CE.
• Kanchipuram: This ancient city played a significant role during the Chola reign, particularly in the later centuries.

The Chola Dynasty’s capital cities serve as a testament to their evolving power and strategic vision. Thanjavur stands out as the most prominent capital, symbolizing the Chola empire’s golden age. Understanding the shifting capitals provides valuable insights into the dynasty’s expansion, administrative strategies, and the cultural legacy they left behind in South India.

Architecture of Chola Dynasty

• Chola architecture, rooted in the Dravida style, epitomized temple construction in medieval India, showcasing some of the most majestic temples.
• Prominent Chola temples like Brihadeshwara and Gangaikonda Cholapuram elevated Dravidian architecture to unprecedented heights.
• Even after the Chola dynasty’s decline, temple architecture continued to thrive.
• Key architectural elements included garbhagriha, vimana, shikhara, mandap, metal art, and imposing gateways.
• Dvarpalas, guarding the mandap entrances, became distinctive features of Chola temples.
• Temples were adorned with meticulously crafted sculptures and frescoes, with Ganas being particularly notable figures.
• A notable characteristic was the inclusion of water tanks within the temple complex.

Brihadeshwara Temple:

• Also known as Rajarajisvaram or Brihadishvarar Temple, it stands as a masterpiece of Chola architecture in Tanjavur.
• Built by Raja Raja Chola, it boasts a shadowless vimana with a sanctum rising 190 feet and capped with an 80-ton stone.
• Unique features include sculptures of deities like Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhnarisvara, and Bikshadana on the outer walls.
• Fresco paintings and miniature sculptures depicting scenes from epics and Puranas adorn the temple walls, reflecting Chola religious beliefs and ideologies.

Famous temples of Chola Dynasty

• Temples in Chola society played a pivotal role, hosting religious ceremonies, social gatherings, and cultural events.
• Community schools around temples educated children on Holy Scriptures and ancient Vedas.
• Chola society exhibited strong devotion to various deities, notably Shiva, who was a major source of strength.
• Many temples were dedicated to Shiva, and the Sri Venkateshwara Temple held significant ties to the Chola Dynasty.
• The Srirangam temple, submerged in water for years, underwent restoration and remains remarkable.
• The Chola Empire erected impressive temples along the Kaveri River, including the Brihadeeswara temple in Thanjavur, India’s tallest and largest.
• These temples showcased exceptional architecture featuring natural-colored murals that are revered to this day.
• Several Chola temples, like Airavatesvara, Gangaikondacholisvaram, and Brihadisvara, are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
• The Chola Empire excelled in arts and sculpture, producing bronze statues of deities such as Lakshmi, Vishnu, and Shiva.
• The craftsmanship and intricacy of these sculptures are highly esteemed.
• The Chola period made significant literary contributions, including religious literature and Jain and Buddhist writings.
• The Nalayira Divya Prabandham, a collection of 4000 Tamil poems, stands as a prominent literary work cherished by historians.

Administration of the Chola Dynasty

The Chola Dynasty’s reign wasn’t just about military might and grand monuments. Their success also hinged on a well-organized and efficient administrative system. Let’s delve into the intricate structure that governed the Chola kingdom for centuries.

A Three-Tiered System:

The Chola administration functioned through a well-defined, three-tiered structure:

1. Central Administration: Headed by the king, the central administration oversaw the entire kingdom. The king was assisted by a council of ministers who advised him on various matters. Important officials like the Olaiya Maakan (Chief Secretary) and the Perundanam (Head Accountant) ensured smooth operation at the center.
   
2. Provincial Administration: The Chola empire was divided into provinces called Mandalams, each governed by a viceroy or a governor, often appointed from the royal family. These viceroys enjoyed considerable autonomy but ultimately reported to the central administration.
   
3. Local Administration: The lowest tier comprised village assemblies known as Ur (general assembly), Sabha (assembly of Brahmin landowners), and Nagaram (assembly of merchants). These assemblies played a crucial role in local governance, managing issues like taxation, irrigation, and maintenance of public infrastructure.
   

Key Features of the Administration:

• Balance of Power: The Chola system maintained a delicate balance between central control and local autonomy. While the central authority ensured overall unity, local assemblies addressed specific needs of their communities.
• Bureaucracy: A well-organized bureaucracy manages various administrative tasks. Officials were appointed based on merit and experience, ensuring efficient functioning.
• Land Revenue System: The primary source of income was land revenue, meticulously documented and collected. Detailed land records were maintained, and taxes were levied based on the type and productivity of the land.
• Military Efficiency: The Cholas maintained a strong and well-equipped military force, crucial for their territorial expansion and defense.

Culture and Society of Chola Dynasty

• During the Chola reign, culture and society achieved remarkable heights, with temples serving as the central hubs for social and religious gatherings.
• Temples also functioned as educational centers where Holy Scriptures and ancient Vedas were taught to students, providing a secure haven during times of warfare and instability.
• Chola society was stratified into Brahmins and Non-Brahmins, and various gods and goddesses were worshipped, with Shiva emerging as a particularly revered deity.
• The Sanskritisation process began during the Chola era, alongside the widespread prevalence of the caste system.
• Chola society witnessed the classification of caste into “Idangai” and “Vadangai,” and tensions arose between Vaishnavites and Shaivites.
• The devadasi system, a new social practice, also emerged during this period.
• Chola rulers were devout followers of Shaivism, with Shiva holding paramount importance. He was worshipped in two distinct forms.
• The period also saw the establishment of Saiva Siddhanta, a profound philosophical system associated with Shaivism.

Literature of Chola Dynasty

• During the Chola period, both Tamil and Sanskrit languages thrived, marking a golden age for Tamil literature.
• Notable Tamil literary works from this era include Kamban’s Ramayan, Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam, and Kalladanar’s Kalladam, among others.
• In Sanskrit literature, Kesava Swami composed the significant work Nannaranava Samkshevam.

Comparison of Chola Dynasty with Other Contemporary Empires

The Chola Dynasty engaged with different South Asian kingdoms during great dynastic diversity. A short comparison:

• The Cholas finally grew stronger than the Pallavas and took over the area.

• The Chola Dynasty and the Chalukya Dynasty often fought and made deals with each other, mostly over who would rule the Deccan region.

• The Cholas were the most powerful people in the southern Deccan.

• The Pala Dynasty controlled parts of Bengal and northeastern India, while the Cholas were south of the subcontinent.

Economy of Chola Dynasty

• The Chola emperors were driven to expand their dominion across the Indian subcontinent by seizing strategically vital trading centers.
• Although the state primarily generated income from land sales, the tax system was intricately designed to maximize revenue through various means.
• Income extraction in the Chola Kingdom operated through two main layers: local and supra-local. The most widespread tax levied on cultivators was known as kutimai.
• Local taxes included various labor dues, with irrigational labor (vetti/vettinai) at village and nadu levels being the most prevalent. Taxes on homes and communal areas were collectively known as natacci.
• Numerous trade and artisanal taxes were also imposed, such as cunkam (toll), tattar pattam (tax on goldsmiths), kurai kacu (tax on fabric), verrilai (tariff on betel leaf), vannar parai (tax on washermen), and paci pattam (tax on fishing).

Decline Of the Chola Dynasty

• Conventional histories often emphasize the downfall of the Chola Kingdom in the late 12th century, attributing it to ineffective leadership.
• Rajaraja Chola III and Rajendra Chola III’s subsequent weakness led to prolonged conflicts within the Chola realm.
• Kopperunchinga I, a Kadava chieftain, briefly held Rajaraja Chola III captive during this period.
• The Hoysalas played a significant and contentious role in the political landscape of the Tamil region at that time.
• Exploiting the disunity among the Tamil kingdoms, the Hoysalas hindered the Cholas and Pandyas from achieving their full potential.

Conclusion

The Chola Dynasty and their ruler were a big part of a great time in medieval history. During this time, there was a big cultural explosion, and the meaning of society grew. The time of rapid change was a fantastic time to ponder and learn. During their time in power, the Cholas put all of the South under the control of a single government.

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